A satellite-driven model to estimate long-term particulate sulfate levels and attributable mortality burden in China

Ambient fine particulate matter (PM2.5) pollution is a major environmental and public health challenge in China. In the recent decade, the PM2.5 level has decreased mainly driven by reductions in particulate sulfate as a result of large-scale desulfurization efforts in coal-fired power plants and industrial facilities. Emerging evidence also points to the differential toxicity of particulate sulfate affecting human health. However, estimating the long-term spatiotemporal trend of sulfate is difficult because a ground monitoring network of PM2.5 constituents has not been established in China. Spaceborne sensors such as the Multi-angle Imaging SpectroRadiometer (MISR) instrument can provide complementary information on aerosol size and type. With the help of state-of-the-art machine learning techniques, we developed a sulfate prediction model under support from available ground measurements, MISR-retrieved aerosol microphysical properties, and atmospheric reanalysis data at a spatial resolution of 0.1 degrees. Our sulfate model performed well with an out-of-bag cross-validation R-2 of 0.68 at the daily level and 0.93 at the monthly level. We found that the national mean population-weighted sulfate con-centration was relatively stable before the Air Pollution Prevention and Control Action Plan was enforced in 2013, ranging from 10.4 to 11.5 mu g m(-3). But the sulfate level dramatically decreased to 7.7 mu g m(-3) in 2018, with a change rate of-28.7 % from 2013 to 2018. Correspondingly, the annual mean total non-accidental and car-diopulmonary deaths attributed to sulfate decreased by 40.7 % and 42.3 %, respectively. The long-term, full -coverage sulfate level estimates will support future studies on evaluating air quality policies and understanding the adverse health effect of particulate sulfate.